COMM411 Study Guide

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Study Guide Structure

In this study guide, the sections in each unit (1a., 1b., etc.) are the learning outcomes of that unit. 

Beneath each learning outcome are:

• questions for you to answer independently;
• a brief summary of the learning outcome topic; and
• and resources related to the learning outcome. 

At the end of each unit, there is also a list of suggested vocabulary words.

How to Use this Study Guide

1. Review the entire course by reading the learning outcome summaries and suggested resources.
2. Test your understanding of the course information by answering questions related to each unit learning outcome and defining and memorizing the vocabulary words at the end of each unit.

By clicking on the gear button on the top right of the screen, you can print the study guide. Then you can make notes, highlight, and underline as you work.

Through reviewing and completing the study guide, you should gain a deeper understanding of each learning outcome in the course and be better prepared for the final exam!

Unit 1: Public Relations Fundamentals

1a. Discuss the origins and aims of public relations, including key historical milestones and the fundamental objectives of this field   

• Who are some of the early pioneers who developed public relations?
• What are the component parts of the modern definition of public relations?
• What are the fundamental objectives of public relations?

Public relations as a profession traces its roots back to the 1800s in the United States. In the earliest application of PR, organizations used it for publicity. During the Press Agentry phase, communication was one way from the organization to the public at large. The circus showman PT Barnum is an example of this phase. The practice of public relations evolved to an executive function, where practitioners advised corporate leaders on organizational decision-making. Some well-known practitioners include Ivy Lee, Edward Bernays, and Arthur Page. Ivy Lee is best known for his work communicating on behalf of the Pennsylvania Railroad during the nation's westward expansion. Edward Bernays is best known for developing a system of scientific persuasion, which means he researched target audiences to develop messages that would resonate with them and encourage them to take action. As an executive at AT&T, Arthur Page developed a set of principles regarding the practice of public relations on behalf of corporations. He emphasized the importance of PR as a management function and reputation management.

The four components of public relations are management, communication, organization, and publics. PR practitioners manage and coordinate tactics to help an organization reach its goals. PR practitioners plan, implement, and evaluate organizational communication strategies and tactics. When we use the term organization, we mean commercial enterprises, nonprofit organizations, or governmental agencies. Publics are groups of people held together by a common concern. PR practitioners communicate on behalf of an organization to many different publics.

Some fundamental objectives of public relations include developing and maintaining relationships between the organization and its publics, systematically listening to and understanding the concerns of publics, planning and implementing strategic communication campaigns that take into consideration the needs of the public and the goals of the organization. 

To review, see:

• History of Public Relations
• What Is Public Relations?
• The Importance of Public Relations

1b. Describe the role of PR within diverse business sectors and organizations   

• What is the hierarchy of PR roles?
• What are some of the specialty practices of public relations?
• What is the difference between working as an in-house PR practitioner and a member of a PR agency?

The hierarchy of PR roles includes communication technician, expert prescriber, communication facilitator, problem-solving facilitator, and communication manager. These are roles and not formal titles of public relations positions. Communication technicians are entry-level practitioners who do writing and editing tasks that support campaigns and programs. An expert prescriber is a staff member with a specialization like employee relations. They have authority over their specialty area and may report to a communication manager or another member of senior management. Communication facilitators liaise between the organization and members of a target public (members of the media relations team). Problem-solving facilitators are problem-solvers who collaborate with other managers. Communication managers are staff members who manage either the public relations function at larger or one of the subfunctions of PR within the organization.

Common public relations specialties include issues management, media relations, community relations, corporate social responsibility, investor relations, marketing communications, government relations, internal relations, and crisis management. Issues management is a problem-solving management function. Media relations practitioners liaise between the organization and members of the media. Community relations tactics focus on building stronger relationships with members of communities (both regional and industry-wide). Corporate social responsibility refers to managing those tactics the organization uses to be a good community citizen. Publicly held corporations have investor relations personnel who liaise between the company and stockholders and financial analysts. Marketing communication staff liaise and support the marketing function of the organization. Government relations staff liaise with local, regional, and federal government representatives. Internal relations or employee relations ensures that employees and volunteers are up-to-date with organizational news and information. Crisis management goes hand-in-hand with issues management to help respond to crisis situations and sometimes avoid crises.

PR practitioners find work as in-house practitioners or specialists within a public relations agency. In-house practitioners work for one company, their employer. Public relations agencies are firms that represent many clients.

To review, see:

• PR Models and Approaches
• Public Relations as a Management Function
• PR and Organizational Effectiveness
• Organizational Factors for Excellent Public Relations

1c. Describe the fundamental components of a public relations campaign, including the tools essential to PR planning   

• What is the difference between a public relations campaign and a public relations program?
• What are some examples of quantitative research a PR practitioner may use in the initial research stage of a PR campaign?
• What is an example of qualitative research a PR practitioner may use in the initial research stage of a PR campaign?

Research is the first step in any public relations campaign or program. A campaign is a collection of tactics used to reach an organizational goal. A program is an ongoing collection of public relations strategies and tactics focusing on a particular public. PR practitioners conduct research to gain an understanding of the organization's challenges. This research sets the stage for planning tactics to reach specific publics. Two types of research are conducted: quantitative research and qualitative research. Quantitative research collects numeric data that can be quantified, such as the U.S. Census data that describes a community using demographic values. Qualitative research collects descriptive data, such as opinions and behaviors. Qualitative data could include answers to a customer survey about a product or service.

To review, see:

• PR Research: Key to Strategy
• Quantitative PR Research
• PR Terminology

Unit 1 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• Arthur Page
• campaign
• communication facilitator
• communication managers
• communication technician
• community relations
• corporate social responsibility
• crisis management
• Edward Bernays
• expert prescriber
• four components of public relations
• government relations
• internal relations
• investor relations
• issues management
• Ivy Lee
• marketing communication
• media relations
• problem-solving facilitators
• program
• PT Barnum
• qualitative research
• quantitative research

Unit 2: Stakeholder Identification and Prioritization

2a. Identify characteristics of domestic and global target audiences, considering factors such as communication channels

• How do we categorize target audiences or stakeholder groups?
• What characteristics do PR practitioners use to identify domestic and global target audiences or stakeholder groups?
• What sources do PR practitioners use to collect data to describe domestic and global target audiences?

Stakeholder groups are collections of individuals who may be affected by an action taken by an organization. We categorize stakeholder groups or target audiences by their relationship with the organization or a particular challenge. There are four stakeholder categories: enabling stakeholders, functional stakeholders, normative stakeholders, and diffused stakeholders. Enabling stakeholders have some control over how the organization conducts its business. Functional stakeholders are essential to the operation of the organization. Normative stakeholders are external groups with which the organization shares common interests. Diffused stakeholders are groups of people who come together to interact with the organization when issues arise that align with their concerns.

PR practitioners use the following characteristics or behaviors to identify target audiences or stakeholder groups. Aside from common demographics such as age, race, gender, and geography, practitioners identify stakeholders and target audiences based on their behaviors in communication transactions. Advocate stakeholders take actions to advocate on behalf of the organization. Dormant stakeholders are usually quiet until they have enough information to form an opinion. Adversarial stakeholders are against something the organization is doing, something they feel that is harming the world. Apathetic stakeholders are numb to the organization.

PR practitioners can learn information about their different audiences and stakeholders through secondary and primary sources. Secondary sources of information include repositories like the U.S. Census data. Primary sources of information include company-specific sources such as employee records and customer satisfaction surveys.

To review, see:

• Identify Stakeholders and Publics

2b. Identify stakeholders involved with and impacted by public relations efforts, such as customers and the local community 

• What are some stakeholder groups associated with nonprofit organizations?
• What are some stakeholder groups related to publicly held enterprises?
• What are some stakeholder groups related to commercial organizations?

Every organization will identify its most important stakeholders. We call these groups priority publics, groups of people on whom the organization depends to accomplish their goals. The lists provided here are just a sampling for each type of organization. Stakeholders or priority publics for a nonprofit organization may include donors who give money, volunteers who give their time, clients who are being served, and legislators who make laws that impact the issue the organization is trying to defend.

Stakeholders or priority publics for a publicly held enterprise may include:

• investors who buy shares;
• financial analysts who consult with investors regarding their portfolios;
• clients who buy the company's products or services;
• government regulators who ensure the company is obeying the laws;
• activist groups who may take issue with how the company operates;
• employees who produce the products and services; or
• vendors and suppliers who provide the raw materials to the company.

Stakeholders or priority publics for commercial organizations may include:

• customers who buy the company's products or services;
• government regulators who ensure the company is obeying the laws;
• activist groups who may take issue with how the company operates;
• employees who produce the products and services; or
• suppliers who provide the raw materials to the company.

Some stakeholders and target audiences are unique to the type of organization, and others may be similar across industry platforms.

To review, see:

• Identify Stakeholders and Publics
• Public Relations Practices

2c. Analyze key issues to be addressed within a public relations campaign, including potential opportunities

• What were the key issues in the UPS case study that public relations was able to address?
• What role does PR play in social marketing?
• What are four strategic approaches that PR practitioners can use in a campaign?

Public relations staff were able to address the following key issues in the UPS case study: the importance of developing and maintaining relationships with both supportive publics and adversarial publics, the importance of supporting the employees, and the importance of issues management as a means to identify problems before they get out of hand.

The subfunctions of marketing communication and corporate social responsibility play a significant role in social marketing. PR practitioners support the marketing function by providing insights into the stakeholders of the organization and their interests in social issues. Social marketing focuses on influencing the public's perception of an organization based on the organization's participation in social issues that the public perceives as important.

There are four strategic approaches a PR practitioner might consider when developing a campaign: defensive, responsive, assertive, and collaborative. The defensive approach is a reactive strategy or self-defense on behalf of the organization. The responsive approach is also a reactive strategy that takes into consideration the effect the organization will have on the publics. The assertive approach is a proactive strategy that promotes self-interest and enables the organization to gain control of the situation. The collaborative approach is also a proactive strategy that attempts to use two-way communication with the public to encourage a resolution.

To review, see:

• Identify Stakeholders and Publics
  
• Public Relations Practices
• Social Marketing

2d. Select messages that will connect with the demographics and particular mindsets of the audience

• How does channel selection impact the success of organizational messages reaching target publics?
• How do demographics, psychographics, and geographics impact the messages crafted by the organization?
• How can a PR practitioner learn more about their publics and the messages that will be most interesting to them?

Public relations campaigns use a multi-media set of channels. Different groups of people pay attention to different media channels (both traditional and social media). Understanding which channels your stakeholders use to learn about news and issues will affect where you attempt to place your campaign messages.

The demographics, psychographics, and geographics of the stakeholders, publics, or audiences affect how a message is structured. Demographics describe characteristics such as age, race, education, gender, and income. Psychographics describe values and lifestyles. Geographics describe your publics by location. Investors will be more interested in messages that share the financial well-being of the organization. At the same time, community members will be more concerned with messages regarding the impact the organization has on resources and the surrounding area.

Using formative and secondary research, a PR practitioner can better understand their publics, and which messages will be most interesting to them. Formative research refers to research collected to understand the situation and formulate strategy, tactics, and messages. Secondary research refers to research previously collected by another source that is useful for learning about the situation and the public.

To review, see:

• Strategic Messaging
• Your Audience, Your Content

Unit 2 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• adversarial stakeholder
• advocate stakeholder
• apathetic stakeholder
• assertive approach
• collaborative approach
• defensive approach
• demographics
• diffused stakeholder
• dormant stakeholder
• enabling stakeholder
• formative research
• functional stakeholder
• geographics
• normative stakeholder
• priority publics
• psychographics
• responsive approach
• social marketing
• stakeholder

Unit 3: Writing for Public Relations

3a. Identify resources to enhance proper writing style, such as AP guidelines

• What is the Associated Press (AP) Stylebook?
• How do corporate communication styles differ from AP Style?
• Why should PR professionals regularly engage with traditional media sources?

The Associated Press is an American nonprofit news agency with bureaus worldwide. Their writing standards are documented in The Associated Press Stylebook and respected as the most comprehensive standards for style and language usage. Members of the mass media rely on AP Style in writing for all media outlets – traditional or digital content. PR professionals learn the AP Style and prepare all materials for the media using that style. Some organizations modify the language rules to create a personalized corporate communication style.

Seasoned professionals and entry-level PR practitioners should regularly read, watch, and listen to the content of media outlets. Keeping up-to-date on news issues will help the practitioners get to know the issues and topics that are of concern to members of the mass media and their users. The mass media users will become the publics of the organization.

To review, see:

• PR Gatekeepers
• Cornerstones of Communication

3b. Select the right public relations research methodology, such as surveys, based on the specific needs and objective

• Where does research fit into the PR planning model?
• What is the difference between primary research and secondary research?
• What are examples of primary and secondary research that a PR practitioner can use to learn about the organization's stakeholders and publics?

Research starts and ends the public relations planning model, known as RACE (research, action planning, communication, and evaluation). Research occurs in the first step (research) and the final step (evaluation). A good practitioner will apply research findings throughout the process to ensure their campaign meets its goals. Primary research is research that the organization or practitioner collects specifically to meet the needs of their situation. It is unique to the organization, such as customer surveys. Secondary research refers to research previously collected by another source that is useful for learning about the situation and the public, such as the U.S. Census data.

To review, see:

• The Discovery Process
  

3c. Identify a range of public relations communications, such as press releases

• What is a news release?
• What is a news conference?
• What are some examples of multi-media PR tactics?

PR practitioners write a range of materials on behalf of their employer organization. The most common writing assignments are media relations tactics such as news releases and media advisories. A news release (also known as a press release) is a news story written for media members. The media members use the news release content to write an article or a broadcast news story about your organization. A news conference is an event that PR practitioners hold to share organizational news with a crowd of media members. PR professionals create materials to attract attention from traditional media (broadcast and print) and digital media (social media influencers and news bloggers). Some multi-media tactics include public service announcements and video news releases. Public service announcements (PSAs) are short messages often used by nonprofit organizations or government agencies, which are aired free of charge by radio and television stations to share public information. Video news releases (VNRs) are news releases supported by images and sound that electronic journalists can use to produce a news package about your organization. VNRs should look like news (not advertising), and require script-writing skills. 

To review, see:

• Press Release Tips
• Writing a Corporate Video Script
• Visual Messaging

3d. Apply techniques that effectively convey key messages and positively influence audience perception

• What does it mean to pitch a story?
• What is the POEM framework used for?
• What is the difference between paid media, earned media, shared media, and owned media?

Pitching is a media relations skill that requires creative thinking, persuasive communication skills, and knowing how a story idea benefits a news producer, such as a reporter, and their audience. PR professionals pitch stories to members of traditional media and social media influencers. There is no guarantee that a story will get published. It is an interpersonal communication tactic.

POEM is an acronym for the types of media PR practitioners may choose from to reach their audiences. The media mix includes paid media, earned media, shared media, and owned media. Paid media are message strategies that an organization pays to have placed, such as advertising. Earned media are publicity or media coverage the organization does not pay for, such as news articles and packages that result from a news release. Shared media refers to social media with content that is produced by the organization as well as other social media users. Owned media refers to channels that the organization owns and controls, such as the corporate website.

To review, see:

• Pitch Your Story Idea
• The POEM framework
• Owned Media Platform Guide

Unit 3 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• earned media
• news conference
• news release
• owned media
• paid media
• pitching
• primary research
• public service announcement (PSA)
• secondary research
• shared media
• The Associated Press Stylebook
• video news release (VNR)

Unit 4: Social Media and Public Relations

4a. Explain the influence of social media platforms on modern public relations practices and strategies

• What is the definition of social media?
• What is a social media release?
• What are examples of social media platforms a PR professional might use in a campaign?

Social media are online communications platforms that allow people to share content. Examples of social media platforms a PR professional might use in a campaign include Facebook or Instagram, but can be anywhere that people share ideas. Social media also includes platforms such as review sites (Yelp and Rotten Tomatoes) and microblogging (like Twitter/X). PR professionals produce social media releases to meet the needs of traditional media members and social media influencers. Social media releases include all the same information as a traditional news release but in a shorter form to make it easier for reporters and producers to pull and locate quotes and soundbite materials. Organizations use social media platforms to build relationships directly with stakeholders and publics. Thus, PR professionals must learn to manage these communication tools.

To review, see:

• Digital Culture's Impact on PR
• New Kings: The Power of Online Influencers
• New Technology in Campaigns
• Press Conferences: Evolution or Demise?
• Marketing Success Metrics

4b. Select the most appropriate media for connecting with target audiences, such as social media channels

• What are some benefits of using social media to communicate with members of the media and social media influencers?
• What are examples of the strengths of some social media platforms?
• What are hashtags?

There are many benefits to using social media (shared media) in your PR media mix. You can reach more people with fewer media relations tactics. Tweeting your pitches on Twitter/X will allow you to contact more media members in a short time frame. As you create content for PR and marketing campaigns, develop content that can be used on multiple platforms – Twitter/X, Facebook, TikTok, and Instagram. Locate blogger communities that represent your stakeholders so you can build relationships directly with them. Understand that each social media platform has its strengths. Some platforms are better for sharing images and videos (TikTok and Instagram), while others are more suited for short messages (Facebook, Twitter/X, and texting). Hashtags are metadata tags that use the hash symbol, #. On social media, microblogging, and photo-sharing platforms, hashtags are a means for users to cross-reference content by topic or theme. Using hashtags can help PR professionals locate information about their organization and measure the use of their PR tactics and messages. The more you know about your target audiences and stakeholders, the better you can match their use with a platform.

To review, see:

• Social PR Tips
• Social Media Visibility

4c. Explain why influencers are effective in communication strategies for PR and in reaching target audiences

• What is a social media influencer?
• Why should PR professionals invest in developing relationships with social media influencers?
• What are some effective ways to engage with social media influencers?

The overall goal of media relations is to establish relationships with traditional mass media members and content producers like social media influencers to help foster accurate, balanced, and timely coverage of an organization's information. Social media influencers are independent third-party endorsers who shape audience attitudes through blogs, posts, and the production of other social media content. There are three types of influencers: connectors, who are good at connecting people; mavens, who are problem solvers; and persuaders, who are good at convincing others to follow their lead. PR practitioners should acknowledge the positives of forging alliances with social media influencers to publicize and promote their organization and its brand. Engaging social media influencers should be an extension of an organization's media relations strategy. Some effective ways to engage with social media influencers include becoming one of their followers, locating blogger communities that represent your stakeholders and target publics, learning what information they are most interested in sharing, and feeding that need.

To review, see:

• The Internet Celebrity
• Understanding Social Media Influencers

Unit 4 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• connector
• hashtag
• maven
• persuader
• social media
• social media influencer
• social media release

Unit 5: Ethical PR and Crisis Response

5a. Apply codes of behavior and ethics to specific situations, such as codes that govern privacy rights

• What is a code of ethics?
• What are the fundamental concepts of the PRSA code of ethics?
• Why is it important to follow a code of ethics?

A code of ethics is an agreed-upon set of rules that members of a profession agree to follow as a means to govern right and wrong behaviors. Ethics represent the value system of members of a profession, like public relations. The most common code of ethics for the practice of PR was created by the Public Relations Society of America (PRSA). Practitioners in strategic communication positions follow the code and expect others to do the same. The fundamental concepts in the PRSA code of ethics include:

• serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for the organization;
• adhere to the highest standards of truth and accuracy;
• responsibly use specialized knowledge and experience in preparing PR campaigns;
• provide objective counsel to the organization;
• deal fairly with all publics;
• act promptly to correct erroneous information;
• do not plagiarize;
• do not give or receive gifts that might influence communication transactions;
• do not violate intellectual property rights;
• do not use deceptive practices; and
• avoid conflicts of interest, real or perceived.

The PRSA code of ethics embodies values and common laws. It is essential for public relations professionals to follow a code of ethics to ensure they are providing the best counsel to their clients or employers and promoting a culture of ethical behavior within the organization.

To review, see:

• The Law and Public Relations
• Ethics, Leadership, and Moral Analysis in PR
• Ethics and Legalities in Public Relations

5b. Apply strategies to effectively address PR challenges and maintain stakeholder relationships

• What are the four stages of the issues management process?
• What occurs in each of the stages of the issues management process?
• What subfunctions of public relations are most related to the issues management process?

PR practitioners engage strategies to help organizations address PR challenges and maintain stakeholder relationships. Issues management is the process of identifying and addressing issues of concern that affect an organization or client. It is a proactive strategy for predicting conflicts and developing strategies to avoid conflict. The issues management process includes four stages: environmental scanning, agenda setting, decision-making, and decision evaluation. In the scanning stage, practitioners may use a SWOT or PEST analysis to identify issues of concern. In the agenda-setting stage, information and research from the scanning stage are used to set the organization's agenda for how they will address issues that were identified. In the decision-making stage, the practitioner counsels organizational leaders about actions they should take to address issues or alleviate issues. In the decision evaluation stage, the organization conducts a debrief to learn from their responses to the issues. The stages of the issues management process mirror those of the RACE model of public relations. The issues management process is most related to crisis management, corporate social responsibility, and community relations.

To review, see:

• Issues Management Overview
• Issues Management Scanning
• Issues Management Agenda Setting
• Issues Management Decision Making
• Issues Management Decision Evaluation

5c. Apply skills to identify, assess, and navigate crises effectively to safeguard reputation and maintain stakeholder trust

• What is crisis management?
• What are the primary types of crises?
• What are the eight crisis response tactics?

Crisis management is a subfunction of corporate public relations that involves planning for and reacting to emergencies. There are four primary types of crises: illegal behavior (on the part of the organization), technical breakdowns (such as accidents and recalls), mega-damage events, and human errors, also known as organizational misdeeds (with or without injuries to the public). If a company uses discriminating practices when hiring employees, they are committing illegal behavior. If a company fails to correctly identify ingredients in a food product (like an allergen such as peanuts), this could lead to a recall of the products and is an example of a technical breakdown. If a company is polluting a local water supply with run-off that leaves the community without potable water, they are committing a mega-damage event. If a company executive extorts money from the company, this is an example of an organizational misdeed without injuries. 

Eight crisis tactics respond to the public in a crisis: self-enhancement tactics, routine communication tactics, framing the crisis tactics, framing the organization tactics, anti-social tactics, accommodative tactics, excellence/renewal tactics, and inter-organizational relationships. Self-enhancement tactics include using advertisements that acknowledge to the public that the organization has a problem and how the organization plans to make things right. Routine communication tactics directly address stakeholder concerns by discussing the crisis and how it is being managed using owned media such as the annual report. Framing-the-crisis tactics explain the crisis by providing status updates and persuasive accounts that describe the organization's role and what they are doing about the crisis. Framing-the-organization tactics make claims about the character of the organization to minimize the negative effects of the crisis and include ingratiation and organizational promotion. Anti-social tactics are defensive and designed to reduce or shift blame away from the organization. Accommodative tactics use pro-social tactics to admit fault and ask for forgiveness, offering reassurances, eliciting sympathy, and making apologies. Excellence/renewal tactics use pro-social tactics designed to move the organization forward and past the crisis by engaging stakeholders in productive dialog and corporate social responsibility programs. Inter-organizational relationships are tactics that borrow credibility from positively viewed partners or distance the organization from bad actors in the crisis.

To review, see:

• Crisis Communication Overview
• Primary Crisis Types
• Crisis Management Communication
• Strategically Responding to Crisis
• Case Study: Mr. Delicious
• Case Study: Red Cross' Sandy Relief Effort

Unit 5 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• accommodative tactic
• anti-social tactic
• code of ethics
• crisis management
• excellence/renewal tactic
• framing-the-crisis tactic
• framing-the-organization tactic
• illegal behavior
• inter-organizational relationship
• issues management
• mega-damage event
• organizational misdeed
• PRSA code of ethics
• routine communication tactic
• self-enhancement tactic
• technical breakdown

Unit 6: PR Careers and Development

6a. Identify the job skills necessary for a public relations professional, such as effective communication

• What are the top five job skills expected of entry-level PR professionals?
• What job skills are expected of managerial-level PR professionals?
• How can new PR professionals get job skills?

The top five skills identified as expectations for entry-level PR professionals include:

1. responding to requests from members of the media;
2. planning communication of programs and campaigns to build favorable relationships with various publics;
3. keeping content up to date on the organization's website and social media accounts;
4. writing media relations materials; and
5. maintaining favorable relationships with publics (community, consumers, employees, or public interest groups).

PR professionals at the managerial level must have advanced skills in reputation management, corporate communication subfunctions, and crisis management.

People new to the field of public relations will benefit from an internship with the public relations office of a company, government agency, or nonprofit organization. An internship is a professional learning experience in which a student or new professional works in a supervised environment and hones their craft. In this case, the learner is practicing their public relations skills. Many organizations have internship programs and use these as a training and hiring tactic.

To review, see:

• PR Occupation
• PR Career Guidance

6b. Describe working conditions and career prospects in public relations, such as crisis communication

• In what conditions do entry-level practitioners find work?
• What might be a logical career trajectory for a new practitioner?
• What roles can managerial-level practitioners expect?

Most entry-level public relations specialists work in supervised offices or departments of organizations such as nonprofit organizations, government agencies, or commercial organizations. As they gain more expertise in subfunctions of PR practice, they may choose to find employment in a public relations agency specializing in a subfunction of public relations. For example, a young professional may work three to five years for a nonprofit organization. When they are ready to look for an advanced position, they may find a position in a prominent agency that specializes in fundraising and advocacy. As practitioners progress in their careers from entry-level tacticians to managers, their employers will have higher expectations for their managerial skills and specialties. Managers in corporate positions are expected to be masters of the major PR specialties, including media relations, investor relations, community relations, customer relations, and employee relations. These practitioners will also have managerial skills to supervise other communication professionals and acumen in business functions such as budgeting and hiring.

To review, see:

• PR Career Skills

6c. Identify suitable resources for career development and support, including job boards

• What are three resources for finding internships, entry-level, and managerial-level PR positions?
• What is networking?
• What are the benefits of networking?

Finding a job is work unto itself. Three resources that PR professionals can use to locate opportunities include the PRSA Job Center, Indeed.com, and LinkedIn.com. Another tactic for finding work opportunities is networking. Networking is the practice of making connections with other colleagues and professionals. Through networking, young professionals can align themselves with a mentor or learn about new work opportunities before a position is publicized in formal job listing sites (Indeed and LinkedIn). Joining a professional organization like the PRSA or the IABC (International Association of Business Communicators) is a way to start networking. These professional organizations hold regular meetings to engage in professional development and networking.

To review, see:

• LinkedIn vs Indeed

Unit 6 Vocabulary

This vocabulary list includes terms you will need to know to successfully complete the final exam.

• internship
• networking